Hofstede Cultural Difference Critiques Essay Example for Free

Hofstede Cultural Difference Critiques Essay Arguably, Hofstede’s work (1980, 1997) represents a pioneering approach of culture as a way of comparing international management frameworks. First of all, prior to offering any evaluations in regards to McSweeney’s criticism (2002a/b), it is crucial to identify the nature of Hostede’s work within the entire sphere of the culture approach itself. In contrast to the guarantors of the emic approach , whose main concepts tend to discard the equalization and standardization of dimensions in national cultures’ comparisons, the pillars of Hofstede’s work, which belong to the etic approach , are based on 5 dimensions whereby national differences are then measured. In other words, from the emic standpoint it is also arguable that the etic research methodology, as aiming to identify equalities among national differences, would risk throwing out the baby with the bath water . On the other hand, from the emic perspective, dividing the culture into a set of defined scopes stands as the only way to actually enable researchers to compare cultures . Having briefly introduced the shortcomings related to both approaches, McSweeney’s critiques can now be narrowed down to a specific scope, which is mainly encompassed with Hofstede’s research methodology. Research Validity  In light of the importance for any researches to provide clear definitions on the specific research concepts and key words, the first part of this essay will evolve on contextualizing the meaning of culture within Hofstede’s work, thus, giving ground to McSweeney’s relevant sources of criticism. Geert (1980) has defined culture as the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from another. McSweeney essentially critiques Hofstede’s adoption of nations as means of cultural comparisons, scorning the territoriality uniqueness of culture in primis. In regards to this issue, Hofstede in a second stage (2002: 1356) acknowledges that nations are not the ideal elements for studying cultures, yet this is the only way researchers could have access to comparable units. Predictably, thousands of other author’s contributions in regards to the definition of culture would make this argument even more complex. For the sake of this analysis, emphasis would be given to the arguments in regards to the research methodology. Research Reliability: Research Sample The first criticism which may arise is likely to involve the representativeness of Hofstede’s research sample. In more details, he argues that 117,000 questionnaires for two surveys, covering 66 countries would be enough to ensure the research reliability. From my point of view, McSweeney’s critiques result founded when analysing the sampling framework in more details. CountryNumber of Respondents for Each Country Belgium, France, Great Britain, Germany, Japan and Sweden (6 countries)More than 1000 Chile, Columbia, Greece, Hong Kong, Iran, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand and Turkey (15 countries)Less than 200 [Tab. 1] As it can be seen by the table (Tab. ), in 15 countries the sample size is composed by less than 200 respondents, which results to be extremely small compared to other countries with over 1000 respondents. To couple this argument, McSweeney discusses about the narrowness of the population surveyed as respondents were all IBM employees, mainly involved with the marketing and sales departments. Hofstede’s reply ( 2002), stating that this sample’s framework had only been used in order to isolate the national culture differences from both the organizational and occupational culture, seems however to give rise to other arguments. As McSweeney’s (2002a: 95-99) argues, respondents’ cultural framework is made up by three non-interacting and durable levels of culture (Tab. 2). At the first level, the assumptions which would free this model from any shortcomings would be that there is only one IBM culture and that there is also a common worldwide occupational culture for each job (Hofstede 1980a: 181). What are these assumptions based on? According to McSweeney (2002a: 96), these assumptions are â€Å"too crude and implausible to underpin Hofstede’s emphatic empirical claims† . Following the thread of his argument we come across a situation where assuming that an IBM employee, whether in a developed USA head office or a new opened branch office in Pakistan, will possess the same identical organizational and occupational culture does become hard to encompass. In response to this argument, Hofstede acknowledges that considerable differences exist at the â€Å"organizational level† (1991: 93), yet it redefines the entire organizational culture as a mere set of â€Å"shared perceptions of daily practices† (1991: 182-3), therefore distancing from the early-stage value-based definition. According to McSweeney (2002b), this is only a failed attempt to deliver a straightforward concept and definition of organizational culture. Back to Culture Hofstede’s vision of culture is often linked to two different concepts, unique national tendency and central tendency, respectively. In the first case, as pointed out by McSweeney, the national uniformity which Hofstede claims to have found, results to have no valid grounds as it derives from a very specific micro-level (IBM). Secondly, in regards to the claimed average tendency, the heterogeneity of questionnaires’ responses completely contradicts this conceptualization at the first place. As cited from Jacob (2005), â€Å"if exceptions to the rule are as numerous as the rule itself† to what extent could predictions based on that rule be reliable? In many countries, McSweeney argues, the typical IBM employee would at a high extent diverge from the general population. That is to say that an IBM employee in Taiwan would not necessarily reflect Taiwan’s population average individual, especially when we are talking about someone who holds a managerial position in a multinational firm. This concept brings us to another aspect of McSweeney’s criticism (2002a:92), â€Å"culture treated as a mere epiphenomenon, completely casual†, as conceptualized by Hofstede, it would look like something which moves along the history â€Å"enduring†, yet it is not subject to radical changes due to fluctuating social, economic and institutional trends (Tab. 3). Questionnaire and Dimensions Arguably, the questionnaire itself also presents some limitations. Firstly aimed to investigate the employees’ morale at IBM, it also resulted to reflect some values that, for Hofstede, could have been used to unveil the national cultural differences’ myth. Citing one of his research questions, â€Å"How long do you think you will continue working for this company? †(1980 Appendix 1) , it is obviously clear there would be differences in whether this question is being asked in a country, say, the USA, with plentiful employment vacancies, or in a country, say Thailand where at the time of the research the unemployment rate was comparatively high. Under these circumstances, it is extremely hard to assume that the respondents were not influenced by other social, political and institutional factors (See Tab. 3). Therefore, his research’s entire reliability could be easily questioned on this basis. Despite ensuring the confidentiality of respondents’ answers, employees’ foreknowledge of the end objective of the survey might have easily encouraged them to assume a more positive attitude in order to support their divisions’ reputation. Arguably, the responses analysed by Hofstede were situationally restricted (McSweeney, 2002a: 107). In more details, the questions only reflected values related to the workplace, furthermore the surveys were exclusively directed within the workplace and were not tested in non-work place locations for both same respondents and others. In light of the first purpose of the questionnaire, it is spontaneous to raise a question in regards to the validity of the dimensions found by Hofstede. Could it be possible that a specialized study in cultural differences would have delineated different dimensions? In his response, Hofstede acknowledged that, although there may be some other dimensions equally important for the structuring of a comparative cultural analysis, relative questions were simply not asked. McSweeney with reference to Triadis (1994) argues that bi-polar dimensions of national cultures should not be comprised of opposite poles (for example: Individualism – Collectivism), but depending on the situations they could coexist. Under these principles, the work of Schwartz (1992) appears to give a comparatively dynamic dimensions’ disposition. History and Research Validations In the last section of his book, Hofstede (1980: 326- 331) includes some historical and contemporary events which he states would validate his research findings. However, McSweeney (2002b) argues that these stories reveal nothing but justifications, leaving out the basics for an accurate confirmation. According to his analysis, Hosfstede’s assertion, â€Å"the more masculine a culture the more antagonistic are industrial relations, is flawed as the trends for working days lost in industrial disputes , in both Spain and the UK, result to vary enormously over time. In other words, we could argue that these fluctuations are highly influenced by political, economic and institutional changes. In the case of industrial relations’ disputes in Spain, after the death of Spanish dictator Franco in 1975, the level of working days was subject to a huge increase. Hofstede’s findings have also been validated by other studies, reflecting the same national cultural differences . This is one of the reasons why Hofstede’s work has so far been used in many disciplines as pioneer of the cultural approach in the sphere of comparative international management. Under these circumstances, as Hofstede states (2002 p. 1358), it is just not all about faith in his research, but it is the willingness of the society to accept his work as something which could be taken to a step further. In some cases, institutional factors, history, politics and economy do provide better explanations in this field, yet as Hofstede would argue, the cultural perspective does have his validity as it offers a complete different view on values embedded by people which do have an influence on their daily lives. Conclusion Arguably, some of Hofstede research framework’s features, especially the ones related to his research methodology, do present various shortcomings. However, the overall importance of cultural approach for national differences should be seen as undeniable (Koen, 2005). Nevertheless, it is worth pointing out that after all, the main argument merely evolves on Hofstede’s claims to have â€Å"uncover[ed] the secrets of entire national cultures† (1980b: 44). Despite his book title narrowing the scope of its findings down to the work-place, â€Å"Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Place Values†, Hofstede, in many of his publications, seems to overestimate his findings. It is extremely important to acknowledge and appreciate the enormous contribution that Hofstede has made to the entire society’s understanding of international cultural differences. On the other hand, it is also crucial to stay away from the â€Å"taken for granted† approach when coming across such a complex topic. As mentioned in the preface, etic and emic approach despite having a different vision on how to measure and analyse culture, they could still be seen as two complementarities which could be extensively used for a more thorough research. In addition, although admitting that limitations in research methodology do hamper the objectivity of findings, the etic approach still stands as the unique way to allow researchers to obtain comparable quantitative data. I do also appreciate the contributions made by McSweeney, whose criticisms have enabled me to adopt a more critical line of thought in analysing this interesting topic. At some extent we could assume that Hofstede’s research is still a â€Å"work in progress†, eventually other advocates of the etic approach will take it to a more universal level, as some of other authors in this field have already done. I would like to conclude this essay with a quote from McSweeney (2002a: 90), when he states that Hofstede’s work could be dismissed as a misguided attempt to measure the unmeasurable .

Option For Prosperity :: essays papers

Option For Prosperity In an advanced information age economy, lifetime earning prospects depend on the quality of education more than ever before. Americans are free to make decisions about their health, college education and welfare. We can choose what to eat, how to exercise, whom to marry and which candidate deserves our vote. All of these choices shape us into the people we are today. The growing trend in home schooled children demonstrates that parents are utilizing their freedom of choice in order to help improve their child’s education. â€Å"It is hard to ignore indictment of the nation’s academically underachieving, morally irresolute, disorderly, and often scary public schools† (Anderson). Home schooling is a necessary option because it is more flexible than public schools, it tailors learning to the needs of the children, and it provides a stable environment for a well-rounded education. Today’s public schools are engulfed so much in a specified curriculum, instructors are there to inform other than teach. Home schooling gives families more flexibility with teaching their children. â€Å"Most home schooling students spend their time at libraries, museums, factories, nursing homes, churches, community colleges, a parks department, or elsewhere† (Lines). These varieties of opportunities for students to experience positively broaden their adolescent minds. Familiarities with knowledgeable occurrences outside of the classroom help shape children’s understanding of the world. Those people who are against the at home learning process feel that it deprives the children of interactions necessary for learning. However, with the freedom from a nine-hour school day, kids have the possibility to venture and actually experience the books instead of just reading them. For example, â€Å"John was able to go to Africa with his grandfather for two weeks and we did not worry about him missing school—southern Africa was his school† (Sale). Most home schooled students do not have the opportunity to go to Africa but, there are always possibilities opposed to spending much of one’s youth inside brick buildings. Other benefits of being schooled at home are that the learning process can be tailored to fit the students’ needs. Under the strict curriculum in which public schools provide, the government determines the pace that students have to learn. It is a known fact that there are not two children alike so how is it possible to teach them all the same way.

Analyze the aims, methods, and degree of success of the Catholic Reformation Essay

In the early 16th century the Protestant Reformation had happened and made the popularity of Catholicism to decline. In response to the Protestant Reformation the Catholic Reformation was issued to reestablish the power and popularity of Catholicism and the Roman Catholic church. The Catholic Reformation created new societies, while fixing problems of the Roman Catholic church. Through the Catholic Reformation The main reasons for the Catholic Reformation was a response to Protestantism and a response to reform the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church was riddled with corruption and scandals such as simony(sale of church offices), absenteeism(priests not showing up to services), and the sale of indulgences(paying the church to absolve sins). Many priests were illiterate and some abused their powers for absolution of sins To reform the structure of Catholic church Pope Paul III had established the Council of Trent which consisted of Catholic cardinals who were responsible for handling the reforms of the Catholic Church. The Council of Trent is considered to be one of the Catholic Church’s most important councils. The Council had 25 sessions from 1545-1563 that would address the issues of the Catholic church. The result of these 25 sessions were the validation of all 7 sacraments and the reaffirmation of Monasticism, celibacy of clergy Transubstantiation, and purgatory. Basically The Council of Trent fixed problems of Catholicism. Another result from the Catholic Reformation is the religious order of the Jesuits (Society of Jesus). Founded in 1540 by St. Ignatious Loyala the Jesuits had 3 goals reform the church through education, spread the Gospel to the Pagans, and to fight Protestantism . Jesuit schools were highly regarded as the finest schools for education in Europe. The Jesuits were organized in a military fashion following rules from Loyola’s guidebook Spiritual Exercises. The book would inform Jesuits how to have less attachment of physical items and informed Jesuits on how â€Å"to master the soul to manipulate the body†.

Martin Luther Cuts All Ties With Catholic Church

Kristopher Hall Mr. Mauldin Honors World Literature 10 10 December 2015 Martin Luther: Cuts All Ties with Catholic Church I. Introduction Whether you believe in a higher power or not, religion has impacted our lives in some way. Vice versa, people can make an impact on religions and transform them to what we know today. Take for example Martin Luther. He was a man looking to simply reform the Roman Catholic Church and its preaching’s because he disagreed with it. With his many ideas, strong will, and criticisms, he forever changed the world. Martin challenged and rebelled against The Catholic Church’s beliefs and with time, the church’s authority and power declined. Most of Luther’s success however comes from 3 main things; the writing of his 95 Thesis, translating the bible into vernacular German, and all leading up to the start of the Protestant Reformation. II. Biography Born in Eislenben in Saxony (now known as Germany) on November 10, 1483, Martin Luther was the first born son to Hans and Margaret Luther. Living in his home town for only a few months, his father moved the family to Mansfield to pursue a career in mining (Forster). As you can imagine, changing career fields was harsh for the Luther family. Constantly worried about their financial state Martin Luther remembers his childhood to be full of poverty (Manns 12). Hans wanting a better life for Martin, instead of sending him to work in the mines, set him to the Mansfield town school when he was just 6Show MoreRelatedThe Reformation Of The King s Romance With Anne Boleyn Or Popular Discontent Essay1860 Words   |  8 Pagesled to the Church of England breaking away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. The purpose of this essay is to argue that the most decisive feature of the Henrician reformation was the King’s determination to conceive a male heir, in orde r to prevent another succession crisis, like those of 1453 and 1461. In doing so, the essay will provide evidence that supports the prominence of this claim over the claims that religious differences with the Catholic Church, the King’sRead MoreThere Is an Inevitable Negative Effect between Religion and Politics1537 Words   |  6 PagesBelieving in an idea that regulates everyone’s life, will influence all aspects of everyone’s life. One simply cannot live a â€Å"Christian life† solely involving religion and divide themselves when they deal with politics. Thus believing in anything shapes each individual as a person: creates their boundaries, defines morality, and what is just and unjust. Therefore, religion will always be tied into politics. Consequently, I am researching the inevitability of the two seemingly separate ideas overlappingRead MoreKing Henry s Viii Church Of England Essay2987 Words   |  12 PagesJason E. Burleigh English M01A Professor Egan November 21, 2014 King Henry’s VIII Church of England Was the Reformation Based in Religion or Politics? When most students think of Henry VIII, they think of the mad, power hungry and misogynistic tyrant who beheaded two of his wives and married six times. Although those events did in fact take place, it is the greater accomplishments of King Henry VIII that should be remembered throughout history. Historians consider Henry VIII to be the most importantRead MoreWorld History Volume Two The Easy Way Essay2572 Words   |  11 Pageshave read an abundant amount of information out the assigned book â€Å"World History Volume Two the Easy Way†. We have covered topics that span from the reformation in Europe all the way to the Spanish conquest in South America and the foundation of the thirteen colonies. We also have examined an article written by Mark Twain that ties in with the slavery segment which we covered in class. On the first day of class, we discussed the topic of history as a whole, and we also went over the typical subjectRead MoreHenry Viii And The Reformation Of England s Church System4160 Words   |  17 Pages Henry VIII and the Reformation of England’s Church System How did events during Henry VIII’s reign cause for a permanent shift in the religious system of England? Hannah Snow Candidate Number: 000784-0009 Extended Essay â€Æ' Abstract: Henry VIII was the King that would change England’s religious system and make it his legacy. The religious system would carry on after his reign and become the predominant religion of England. The question is: How did events connected to key historical figures duringRead MoreRevolution during the Swinging Sixties1555 Words   |  6 Pagesthe Summer of Love, drugs, flamboyant fashion, and the ‘permissive society’† (Fisher 3). Socially, fashion was making a 180 degree turn. The Beatles influenced fashion for many bands. As Garson stated in his book, â€Å"Out were the matching jackets, ties, and pompadours, in were jeans, vests, and longer hair combed down in the style of the Beatles.† (Garson 86). First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy influenced women’s fashion a great deal as well. â€Å"Fashion both followed and predicated political action.† (RiellyRead MoreUtopian Societies Impact911 Words   |  4 Pagescooperative society is an attrac tive conference, but they were all considered experiments because they all declined swiftly and hopelessly. The western concept of utopias stem in the age-old world, where fables of a carnal arcadia lost to history, linked to the human ambition to build an ideal community, abetted in forming the utopian notion (â€Å"Utopias in America†). Ideal communities have varied considerably in philosophy and design, and maybe not all have been persistently utopian in the draconian understandingRead MoreBible Versus the Toran12356 Words   |  50 Pages FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM COMPARED TO THE TEN PAGE 29-34 COMMANDMENTS VIII. COMPARING THE LIFE OF TWO AFRO-AMERICANS (1) MALCOM X - ISLAMIC MUSLIM/QURAN PAGE 35-43 8 (2) MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. - CHRISTIAN/BIBLE PAGE 44-48 9 (3) BOTH MENS POLITICAL VIEWS ON VIOLENCE AND PAGE 49-56 CHANGE IN SOCIETY (4) THE STRONG CONNECTION BETWEEN BOTH MEN PAGE 57 Read MoreApush Chapter 1 Notes3298 Words   |  14 PagesWestward o Leif Ericson (Newfoundland)(Norwegian)(one of a few to glimpse) o Europe unaware of America’s Existance before 15th Century o Provincial Outlook o Commerce was limited in medieval times o Few merchants looked beyond own region o Roman Catholic Church held spiritual authority o No single person held power, no major leaders o As Conditions changed, interest in overseas exploration changed Commerce and Nationalism o Rise in population during the 15th Century o Rebound after bubonic plague(killedRead MoreChapter 1 Apush Notes [Americas History]2669 Words   |  11 Pagesâ€Å"aliens† Clan elders: Conducted ceremonies Resolved personal feuds Set war policy Enforced customs Ban on marriage b/t members of the same clan Laced spiritual authority Relied on kin ties to govern No individual ownership Shared everything to get rid of self-interest Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws were all once organized into chiefdoms Epidemic diseases spread by Hernà ¡n de Soto’s expedition which destroyed their traditional institutions Importance of farming-- matrilineal system System